The Story of Technology: Core Curriculum
Technology is the story of human ingenuity, ambition, and transformation. From the earliest tools fashioned by our ancestors to the intricate digital networks of today, technology has been a fundamental driver of change, shaping how we live, work, and understand the world around us. The history and philosophy of technology explore not just the development of these tools and systems but the foundational impact they have on society, culture, and our very existence.
This post discusses the pivotal ideas and contributions that form this field’s core curriculum, which I find deeply interesting. It covers the essence of technology and explores the ways technology shapes society and the ethical challenges it presents. We will see the connections between technological progress and human values by highlighting the insights of critical thinkers—ranging from philosophers such as Martin Heidegger and Michel Foucault to sociologists and historians such as Lewis Mumford and David Nye.
Themes in the Story of Technology
Exploring technology’s role in our lives is a journey through some of human existence’s most exciting and complex dimensions. In studying the history and philosophy of technology, we encounter several significant themes essential to understanding this field’s breadth and depth. By examining its nature, development, interactions with us, and broader societal impacts, we learn how technology shapes who we are and how we live.
In The Nature of Technology, thinkers such as Brian Arthur, Kevin Kelly, and Gilbert Simondon explore the essence of technology, how it behaves and evolves, and its intrinsic tendencies and inner workings. These insights encourage us to view technology as an integral part of our reality, continuously shaping and reshaping itself.
In The Development of Technological Systems, thinkers such as Lewis Mumford, Thomas P. Hughes, and Steven Shapin explore the collaborative and context-dependent process of technological advancements and how this process is intertwined with social practices, cultural norms, and political dynamics, reflecting our collective values and aspirations. This understanding underscores the importance of considering the broader context behind technological development and recognizing that technological systems are products of human choices and negotiations.
In Interacting with Machines: How Technology Mediates Human Experience, thinkers such as N. Katherine Hayles, Lucy Suchman, and Don Ihde explore how we interact with machines, how this interaction transforms our experience of the world, and how our identities become increasingly intertwined with cybernetic systems. Albert Borgmann’s “device paradigm” warns of the potential loss of meaningful engagement with our environment due to the convenience of technology. These explorations reveal how technology mediates our experiences and shapes our perceptions and capabilities.
In How Technology Affects Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political Structures, thinkers such as Michel Foucault, Jacques Ellul, and Donna Haraway explore how technology’s influence extends beyond individual interactions, affecting entire social, cultural, economic, and political structures. These structures highlight the social and planetary costs and point to the moral questions and responsibilities that arise with technological innovation. These thinkers collectively remind us that technology is a powerful force that can empower or oppress, shaping the fabric of our societies.
Organizing the literature along these themes helps organize the rich diversity of ideas that have shaped our understanding of technology and its role in human life. Through the works of these thinkers, we can gain a deeper appreciation of the complex relationship between technology and humanity.
The Nature of Technology
The nature of technology is a topic that invites us to think deeply about the tools and systems we create and use. It is an integral part of our lives that evolves, interacts, and transforms the world in ways that often go beyond our immediate perception. Several influential thinkers have explored these dimensions, offering insights that help us understand technology’s complex and frequently surprising nature.
One intriguing idea comes from Timothy Morton, who describes in “Hyperobjects: Philosophy and Ecology after the End of the World” (2013) certain phenomena as “hyperobjects”—entities that are massively distributed in time and space, defying our ability to fully grasp them. Morton uses hyperobjects as a way to understand climate change. Technology itself can also be considered a hyperobject (see my artist statement on this) because it permeates every aspect of our lives, from the mundane to the extraordinary, and its impacts are felt across generations and geographies. This concept pushes us to realize that technology is not just something we use; it is an omnipresent force that immerses us and shapes our reality in far-reaching ways.
Gilbert Simondon, in “On the Mode of Existence of Technical Objects” (1958), explores how technical objects evolve through phases of invention and refinement driven by human creativity and ingenuity. Simondon’s work encourages us to see technology as a dynamic process that integrates human and technical elements, evolving in response to internal coherence and external demands.
Kostas Axelos, in “Le Jeu du Monde” (1969), and Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, in “A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia” (1980), contribute to this understanding by exploring the philosophical and sociopolitical dimensions of technology. Their work elaborates on the concept of the rhizome that challenges conventional structures, proposing a non-hierarchical and interconnected view of technological systems that create networks and assemblages that shape our social realities, suggesting that technology is intertwined with power structures and cultural practices.
George Basalla, in “The Evolution of Technology” (1988), emphasizes that technological change is not just about new inventions but also about the gradual refinement and adaptation of existing tools. Basalla highlights how technological advancements often arise from incremental improvements rather than sudden breakthroughs, underscoring the compounding nature of technological progress.
Hans Moravec, in “Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence” (1988), and Michael Heim, in “The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality” (1993), push the boundaries of how we think about technology’s future. Moravec envisions a future where human consciousness can be transferred to machines, blending human and artificial intelligence. Heim explores the philosophical implications of virtual reality, pondering how our perception and identity might be transformed by immersive technologies.
In “The Nature of Technology: What It Is and How It Evolves” (2009), Brian Arthur builds on George Basalla’s work by exploring how technology develops through a process akin to biological evolution. Arthur argues that technologies evolve by combining existing technologies in new ways, creating an ever-expanding web of innovation. This evolutionary perspective helps us appreciate the complexity and dynamism of technological development, seeing it as an organic process rather than a linear progression.
In “What Technology Wants” (2010), Kevin Kelly takes this idea further by proposing that technology has its own intrinsic direction. Kelly suggests that the “technium”—the collective body of technology—exhibits behaviors and tendencies that guide its evolution. He posits that technology wants to increase diversity, complexity, and efficiency. This view inspires us to think of technology as a living system with drives and goals, interacting with human society in a symbiotic relationship.
These thinkers collectively invite us to consider technology as an evolving, dynamic force interacting with our world. By understanding technology as a hyperobject, an evolving entity with its own tendencies, a networked system embedded in our social fabric, we gain a deeper appreciation of its role in our world.
The Development of Technological Systems
Technological systems are more than the sum of their parts; they are complex networks that evolve through the interplay of economic and political forces. Understanding how these systems are conceptualized and developed requires examining the broader context in which they emerge and operate. Several key thinkers have explored these dimensions, offering insights into the social construction of technological knowledge and the ethics of innovation.
In “Technics and Civilization” (1934), Lewis Mumford provides a historical analysis of how technological systems have evolved alongside human societies. His work highlights the mutual influence between technological advancements and societal values, suggesting that our tools reflect our collective aspirations and fears.
Thomas Kuhn’s “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” (1962) introduces the concept of paradigm shifts, which can be applied to understanding technological revolutions. Kuhn argues that significant advancements occur not through gradual accumulation but through radical changes in the underlying frameworks that guide research and development. This idea helps us see technological innovation as a process of disruptive change, where new paradigms replace old ones, leading to transformative advancements.
Wolfgang Schivelbusch, in “The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the 19th Century” (1977), examines the transformative impact of the railway system. Schivelbusch shows how the advent of railways revolutionized transportation and altered perceptions of time and space. This technological innovation redefined social and economic relationships, illustrating how new systems can fundamentally reshape human experiences and societal structures.
Thomas P. Hughes, in “Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930” (1983), delves into the development of electrical power systems. Hughes describes how these systems emerged from a complicated interplay of technical innovation, economic interests, and political negotiations. His work emphasizes the role of “system builders”who navigate and integrate various components and stakeholders, underscoring the collaborative nature of technological development.
Steven Shapin, in “Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life” (1985), explores the social construction of scientific knowledge. Shapin’s study of the debates between Thomas Hobbes and Robert Boyle over the air pump reveals how social and political contexts influence scientific practices and technological innovations. This perspective highlights that technological systems are not just products of technical expertise but are also shaped by the broader societal framework in which they are developed.
Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, Trevor Pinch, and Deborah G. Douglas emphasize that technology is socially constructed in “The Social Construction of Technological Systems” (1987). This means that technological systems are shaped by the social, economic, and political contexts in which they are developed. This illustrates that technological artifacts are not inevitable but result from choices and negotiations among various actors.
Arnold Pacey’s “Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History” (1990) expands the view of technological development by considering a global perspective. Pacey traces the diffusion and adaptation of technologies across different cultures and periods, showing how local contexts influence technological evolution. His work highlights the importance of understanding technology within broader historical and cultural frameworks.
Carl Mitcham’s “Thinking through Technology: The Path between Engineering and Philosophy” (1994) explores the philosophical dimensions of technology. Mitcham argues for a more reflective approach to technological development, considering the technical aspects and the ethical and societal implications. His work calls for a balance between engineering practices and philosophical inquiry, promoting a more holistic understanding of technology.
Andrew Feenberg’s “Questioning Technology” (1999) challenges the notion that technology is neutral and autonomous. Feenberg argues that technological systems embody specific social and political values and that democratizing technological development can lead to more equitable and just outcomes. His work emphasizes the need for critical engagement with technology, advocating for greater public participation in technological decision-making.
Geoffrey C. Bowker and Susan Leigh Star’s “Sorting Things Out: Classification and Its Consequences” (1999) examines the role of classification systems in organizing knowledge and technology. Bowker and Star’s work reveals how these systems shape social practices and power relations, highlighting the ethical implications of how we categorize and manage technological information.
Ian Hacking’s “The Social Construction of What?” (1999) explores the philosophical debates around social construction, including its application to technology. Hacking’s work provides a nuanced view of how technological systems and scientific knowledge are constructed, emphasizing the role of social contexts and human agency in shaping technological realities.
Philip Brey’s essay, “Constructive Philosophy of Technology and Responsible Innovation” (2016), focuses on the ethical dimensions of technological development. Brey argues for integrating ethical considerations into the design and implementation of technologies, promoting responsible innovation that addresses societal needs and values.
Sheila Jasanoff’s “The Ethics of Invention: Technology and the Human Future” (2016) examines the ethical challenges of new technologies. Jasanoff emphasizes the need for a more inclusive and reflective approach to technological innovation, advocating for policies and practices that ensure technologies serve the public good and respect human rights.
Together, these thinkers provide a comprehensive framework for understanding how technological systems are conceptualized and developed. They highlight the social construction of technological knowledge, showing that technology is not just a technical endeavor but a profoundly social one.
Interacting with Machines: How Technology Mediates Human Experience
In our modern world, the interaction between humans and technology has become essential to daily life, fundamentally altering how we perceive ourselves and our surroundings. The deep integration of machines and computers into our existence offers exciting opportunities and profound challenges. Several influential thinkers have explored how these interactions shape our experiences and transform our understanding of reality.
In his essay “The Question Concerning Technology” (1954), Martin Heidegger delves into the essence of technology. Heidegger suggests that technology reveals the world, a mode of understanding that prioritizes efficiency and control. He warns that this technological enframing can limit our perception, reducing the world to a mere resource to be exploited. Heidegger’s insights encourage us to reflect on how our technological mindset might constrain our interaction with the world.
Jürgen Habermas, in “The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere” (1962), examines how communication technologies shape public discourse and democratic practices. Habermas highlights the role of media in facilitating public debate and participation, suggesting that technology can both enable and constrain democratic engagement. His work underscores the importance of maintaining an open and inclusive public sphere in the digital age.
Marshall McLuhan’s “Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man” (1964) analyzes how media technologies extend our sensory capabilities and alter our social environments. McLuhan’s famous phrase, “The medium is the message,”emphasizes that a medium’s characteristics, rather than its content, significantly influence human experience and societal change.
In “Television: Technology and Cultural Form” (1974), Raymond Williams explores television’s social and cultural impact. Williams argues that television is a technological innovation and a cultural form that shapes how we perceive and engage with the world. His work highlights the role of technology in shaping cultural narratives and social practices.
Albert Borgmann, in “Technology and the Character of Contemporary Life: A Philosophical Inquiry” (1984), introduces the concept of the “device paradigm.” He explains how modern technology simplifies our interactions with the world by turning complex activities into easy-to-use devices. While this convenience brings many benefits, Borgmann warns that it can also lead to a loss of meaningful engagement with our environment and each other. He urges us to seek a balance where we can enjoy the advantages of technology without losing the depth and richness of human experience.
In “Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business” (1985), Neil Postman critiques the impact of entertainment media on public discourse. Postman argues that the dominance of visual and entertainment-oriented media has transformed serious public debate into a superficial spectacle, raising concerns about the quality of democratic engagement in the media age.
In “Plans and Situated Actions: The Problem of Human-Machine Communication” (1987), Lucy Suchman challenges traditional views on human-computer interaction. Suchman emphasizes that our interactions with machines are not just about executing predefined plans but are dynamic and context-dependent. She highlights the importance of situational awareness in understanding how people use technology, showing that successful human-machine communication relies on the adaptability and responsiveness of both parties.
In “Technology and the Lifeworld: From Garden to Earth” (1990), Don Ihde explores how technologies mediate our sensory and cognitive experiences. Ihde, who coined the term “postphenomenology,” examines the reciprocal human–technology interrelationship as an integral part of our lifeworld that shapes how we perceive and understand reality. This insight encourages us to consider how different technologies might enhance or limit our interactions with the world around us.
In “The Creative Mind: Myths and Mechanisms” (1990), Margaret Boden examines the intersection of technology and creativity. Boden explores how artificial intelligence can simulate creative processes, challenging the idea that creativity is an exclusively human trait. Her work suggests that technology can expand the boundaries of creativity, offering new tools and perspectives that enhance our imaginative capacities.
In “Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices” (1997), Stuart Hall investigates how media technologies shape cultural narratives and our understanding of reality. Hall’s work highlights the role of technology in constructing and disseminating cultural meanings, suggesting that our perceptions are mediated by the technological forms through which we receive information. This perspective helps us understand how technology influences our social and cultural identities.
N. Katherine Hayles, in “How We Became Posthuman: Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics”(1999), explores the blurred boundaries between humans and technology. Hayles argues that we are moving towards a “posthuman” condition where our identities are increasingly intertwined with digital and cybernetic systems. This idea challenges the traditional notion of being human, suggesting that our bodies and minds are continuously shaped by the technologies we engage with. This perspective opens up intriguing possibilities for enhancing our capabilities and redefining human potential.
In “Where the Action Is: The Foundations of Embodied Interaction” (2001), Paul Dourish emphasizes the importance of physical presence and movement in human-computer interaction. Dourish argues that technologies should be designed to support embodied practices, recognizing that our bodily actions are integral to interacting with and understanding technology. This approach encourages the creation of more intuitive and responsive technological systems.
Peter-Paul Verbeek, in “What Things Do: Philosophical Reflections on Technology, Agency, and Design” (2005), explores how technological artifacts shape human actions and experiences. Verbeek argues that technologies have their own agency, influencing our behavior and ethical decisions. His work encourages us to consider the moral implications of design, advocating for responsible and reflective approaches to technological development.
Eugene Thacker, in “The Global Genome: Biotechnology, Politics, and Culture” (2005), examines the intersection of biotechnology and society. Thacker explores how biotechnological advancements challenge traditional boundaries between nature and culture, raising ethical and philosophical questions about life and identity in the age of genetic engineering.
In “Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide” (2006), Henry Jenkins explores how media convergence is transforming cultural production and consumption. Jenkins argues that blending old and new media forms creates new opportunities for participatory culture, where audiences are actively involved in developing and sharing content.
In “Documentality: Why It Is Necessary to Leave Traces” (2009), Maurizio Ferraris investigates the role of documentation and information technologies in shaping social reality. Ferraris argues that documentation technologies are essential for creating and maintaining social structures, emphasizing the importance of preserving and managing digital traces.
In “You Are Not a Gadget: A Manifesto” (2010), Jaron Lanier critiques digital technologies’ reductive tendencies. Lanier warns against treating humans as mere data points and advocates for preserving the richness and complexity of human experience in the digital age. His work encourages us to design technologies that respect and enhance human dignity.
Tim Wu, in “The Master Switch: The Rise and Fall of Information Empires” (2010), examines the historical cycles of openness and control in communication technologies. Wu’s work highlights the tensions between innovation and monopolistic practices, emphasizing the need for policies that promote open and competitive technological environments.
These thinkers collectively illuminate how our interactions with machines and computers shape our experiences and understanding of the world. They reveal that technology is not just a set of tools but an active mediator of human life, influencing how we perceive, think, and interact.
How Technology Affects Social, Cultural, Economic and Political Structures
The impact of technology on society is foundational and multifaceted, influencing everything from social relationships to economic systems, cultural practices, and political structures. By examining the insights of several vital thinkers, we can gain a deeper understanding of these complex interactions and their implications for our world.
In “The Technological Society” (1954), Jacques Ellul argues that technology has become an autonomous force that shapes every aspect of human life. Ellul describes a process he calls “technological determinism,” where technological advancements drive social change, often at the expense of human values and traditional ways of life. This perspective challenges us to consider retaining our humanity in a world increasingly dominated by technological imperatives.
Lynn White Jr., in “Medieval Technology and Social Change” (1962), illustrates how technological innovations in the medieval period, such as the stirrup and the heavy plow, transformed European society. White’s work highlights how these seemingly simple inventions had far-reaching effects on social structures, economic practices, and political power. This historical perspective reveals that technology has always catalyzed significant societal shifts.
In “One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society” (1964), Herbert Marcuse explores how technological rationality shapes social relations and individual consciousness in advanced industrial societies. He argues that when aligned with capitalist interests, technology creates a conformist and one-dimensional society where critical thought and genuine freedom are stifled.
In “Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison” (1975), Michel Foucault explores how technological and administrative innovations in the penal system reflect broader shifts in social control and power. Foucault’s analysis of surveillance and disciplinary mechanisms shows how technology can exert control over populations, shaping behavior and social norms. His work encourages us to question the power dynamics embedded in technological systems.
Paul Virilio’s “Speed and Politics: An Essay on Dromology” (1977) examines how the acceleration of technology, particularly in transportation and communication, reshapes political and social realities. Virilio argues that speed becomes a tool of power, where those who can move information and goods the fastest gain significant advantages. This insight prompts us to consider the implications of technological acceleration on our lives and societies.
Ruth Schwartz Cowan’s “More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave” (1983) explores how household technologies, intended to reduce domestic labor, often perpetuate traditional gender roles. Cowan’s work reveals the complex social dynamics in technological adoption and its impact on everyday life.
Langdon Winner, in “The Whale and the Reactor: A Search for Limits in an Age of High Technology” (1986), explores the political dimensions of technology. Winner argues that technologies are not neutral tools but embody specific social and political values. He highlights how technological choices can reinforce existing power structures or create new forms of inequality. This perspective emphasizes the need for democratic participation in technological decision-making.
Donna Haraway’s “Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature” (1991) challenges traditional boundaries between humans, animals, and machines. Haraway’s concept of the cyborg as a hybrid entity blurs the lines between nature and technology, opening up new possibilities for identity and social relationships. This book of essays includes “A Cyborg Manifesto,” which explores how scientific and technological narratives shape and are shaped by cultural and gendered assumptions. Her work inspires us to rethink the categories that define our existence.
David Nye’s “American Technological Sublime” (1994) delves into the cultural impact of technological achievements in the United States. Nye explores how awe-inspiring technologies shape national identity and cultural values, from skyscrapers to space exploration. His work reveals how technological advancements can evoke robust emotional responses and contribute to a collective sense of progress and destiny.
In “Technics and Time, 1: The Fault of Epimetheus” (1994), Bernard Stiegler investigates the relationship between technology and human temporality. Stiegler argues that technological artifacts mediate our experience of time, influencing how we remember, anticipate, and engage with the world. His work encourages us to reflect on the more profound existential implications of living in a technologically mediated world.
Brian Winston’s “Media Technology and Society: A History from the Telegraph to the Internet” (1998) provides a comprehensive historical analysis of media technologies and their societal impact. Winston examines how each new communication technology has reshaped social interactions, economic practices, and cultural norms. His work underscores the continuous and transformative power of media technologies.
In “Retooling: A Historian Confronts Technological Change” (2002), Rosalind Williams explores the personal and societal challenges of technological change. Williams emphasizes the need for individuals and societies to adapt to new technologies while maintaining a critical perspective on their implications. Her work highlights the importance of historical awareness in navigating technological transitions.
Leah A. Lievrouw, in “Alternative and Activist New Media” (2011), examines how new media technologies are used for activism and social change. Lievrouw highlights the potential of digital platforms to empower marginalized groups and facilitate grassroots movements. Her work demonstrates how technology can be harnessed for social good, challenging existing power structures.
Sherry Turkle’s “Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other” (2011) explores the impact of digital technologies on social relationships. Turkle argues that while technology offers new ways to connect, it can also lead to isolation and a decline in face-to-face interactions. Her work encourages us to critically assess how technology affects our social and emotional well-being.
In “The Transparency Society” (2012), Byung-Chul Han examines how the demand for transparency in all areas of life—driven by digital technology—undermines privacy, trust, and authenticity. He argues that this relentless pursuit of openness and visibility turns society into a panopticon where individuals are constantly monitored and judged. Han’s work critiques the cultural and psychological consequences of living in a digitally transparent world, challenging us to rethink our values on visibility and openness in the digital age.
Frank Pasquale’s “The Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms That Control Money and Information” (2015) investigates the opaque nature of algorithms that govern many aspects of our lives. Pasquale warns of the dangers of unaccountable and inscrutable technologies that can reinforce social inequalities and undermine democratic processes. His work calls for greater transparency and accountability in the development and deployment of technology.
Shoshana Zuboff, in “The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power”(2019), explores how digital technologies are used to monitor and manipulate behavior for profit. Zuboff argues that surveillance capitalism threatens privacy, autonomy, and democracy. Her work highlights the urgent need to protect human rights in the digital age.
Kate Crawford’s “Atlas of AI: Power, Politics, and the Planetary Costs of Artificial Intelligence” (2021) examines the broad impacts of AI technologies. Crawford explores how AI systems concentrate power, exploit labor, and harm the environment. Her work emphasizes the need to consider AI development’s ethical and social implications and advocate for more equitable and sustainable practices.
These thinkers collectively illustrate how technology shapes and is shaped by social, cultural, economic, and political structures. Their insights reveal that technology is not just a passive tool but an active force that can reinforce or challenge existing power dynamics.
Conclusion
The study of technology’s impact on human life is not just about understanding machines and systems but about exploring the myriad ways technology shapes our world. From its nature and development to its mediation of human experience and its broader societal impacts, technology is an integral part of our reality that continuously challenges us to rethink our relationship with the world and each other. The perspectives of these thinkers not only broaden our understanding but also inspire us to engage more thoughtfully with the technological world we are continuously creating. Their insights help us think critically about the transformative power of technology and the ethical implications of innovation and strive for a more responsible and inclusive approach to technological development.